EOTO #3 Integration of the Armed Forces

The integration of the armed forces, also known as racial integration, refers to ending racial segregation in the United States military, which lasted until the mid-20th century. This significant change was mainly driven by the civil rights movement and a series of executive orders and legislative actions.

President Truman's Executive Order 9981, issued on July 26, 1948, put an end to discrimination in the US Armed Forces based on factors such as race, color, religion, or national origin. This marked a turning point during the Korean War from 1950-1953, leading to the full restoration of the military services.

Executive Order 9981 was a pivotal accomplishment of President Truman's administration and a significant milestone in the civil rights movement. It was largely influenced by the brutal attack on Isaac Woodard Jr., an African-American World War II veteran. In the aftermath of his honorable discharge from the United States Army on February 12, 1946, Woodard suffered a devastating assault by South Carolina police while still in uniform and boarding a bus to return home. This unjust attack resulted in Woodard's complete and permanent blindness, prompting President Harry S. Truman to initiate a federal investigation. 

Truman established a national commission to promote cooperation between people of different races. In 1947, he gave a speech to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the entire nation, emphasizing the moral importance of civil rights. The speech was groundbreaking and had a significant impact. In February 1948, a civil rights bill was presented to Congress. On June 26, 1948, Executive Orders 9980 and 9981 were issued, which desegregated the armed forces and federal government. These orders played a significant role in advancing civil rights.

During World War II, there were significant changes in the way wars were fought and how civilians supported the war effort. The transformation brought about the integration of the armed forces. Leaders in political, economic, industrial, diplomatic, and military sectors came together to reorganize the nation's defense before the war's end.

After Japan surrendered in August 1945, the military quickly downsized, despite its occupation duties in Germany, Austria, Japan, and Korea. The decision to reduce the army's size was driven by public pressure. In August 1945, the army had over 8 million troops, but by March 1948, it had only 554,000 soldiers. Most veterans were discharged, and inexperienced recruits replaced them, except for a few career soldiers. Consequently, this resulted in a decline in the army's combat effectiveness.

During the Korean War in 1950, the number of troops in the army significantly increased, reaching 1.5 million by 1951. Following the end of the war in 1953, the army maintained high levels of strength even during peacetime, with 860,000 soldiers by the end of 1960.

To counter potential Soviet invasion during the Cold War, the US kept a large standing army in Western Europe. However, after the Korean War, the army downsized while the defense budget was primarily allocated to long-range nuclear capabilities in the Navy and Air Force. Strategic planners were concerned about combat effectiveness due to inadequate funds for equipment modernization. Despite having 14 divisions, only 11 were combat-ready at that time.

In conclusion, the integration of the US armed forces was a transformative event in American history. Desegregation, which started after World War II and continued into subsequent conflicts, was a significant step towards achieving equality and civil rights for all citizens. This process helped to break down the barriers that kept people of different races apart. It was an important move towards creating a fair and just society. Executive Order 9981, played a crucial role in breaking down racial barriers within the military, ultimately leading to the full integration of African-American and minority soldiers.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Executive-Order-9981

https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-United-States-Army/World-War-II-the-Korean-War-and-the-Cold-War

State vs Mann Mock Trial Reaction

In the courtroom, we listened to arguments for and against John Mann. The State vs. Mann case was centered around a dispute between North Carolina and Mann, who was a slave owner. Mann had shot and killed Lydia, one of his enslaved individuals, as she attempted to flee. Mann shot her from behind in an attempt to escape.

Subsequently, North Carolina prosecuted John Mann and found him guilty, he was charged a $10 fine. Mann contested this decision, wanting a refund of the fine.

The state's attorneys argued that Mann was indeed guilty, and they offered several justifications. They questioned the brutal treatment of slaves, raising concerns about the physical abuse they endured and the fact that they were not regarded as human beings. The state argued that despite the economic benefit of slavery, the mistreatment of enslaved individuals was unjust.

Furthermore, Lydia did not legally ever belong to John Mann, but he was rather renting her services from another woman.

The state dealt with the fact that Mann's actions constituted assault and battery, emphasizing that since Mann did not possess legal ownership of Lydia, he could not subject her to such awful mistreatment.

John Mann's legal team argued that he deserved a refund, invoking biblical justification for his actions. They claimed that Mann's actions were morally justifiable, and they had the audacity to place the blame on Lydia, arguing that if she had tolerated the mistreatment without trying to escape, she ultimately would not have been shot.

Ultimately, the court ruled in favor of John Mann, refunding him the $10 fine.

After examining the arguments from both sides, I believe in the standpoint of the state. It is clear that John Mann's treatment of Lydia was unjust, and it shows the need for a fairer treatment of slaves, given their substantial role in the Southern economy.

Reaction Post

Throughout the Reconstruction Era, there were many positives and negatives that took place. Starting with the negatives...

Lynching is the public killing of an individual who has not received any due process. In 1891, New Orleans was the biggest lynching event in US history.

The Ku Klux Klan was founded in 1866 in Tennessee. The goal was to restore white supremacy and the main target was the Freedman Bureau. The peak was between 1868 and 1870, and it successfully restored white rule in Tennessee, Georgia, and North Carolina. 

Carpetbaggers were individuals who wanted money and social and political power. It is when northerners would come down to the south and it was for support of the republican party.

Lincoln's Assassination at Ford's Theatre in Washington DC on April 14, 1865 and he died on April 15. There was a huge mourning over his death. He became much more respected after his death than in his actual life. 

The end of military Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. This Compromise was between Republicans and Democrats. 

Black Codes are a restrictive law that limited the freedoms of African Americans and ensured their availability of cheap labor after the Civil War. The laws limited the freedoms of African Americans, the Grandfather Clause, the Literacy test, and segregation of public schools and public places. The Grandfather Clause was that a man could only vote if he had an ancestor.

The positive advancements include...

The Freedman's Bureau was from 1865-1872 and existed in many southern states stretching to Texas. Andrew Johnson was constantly a problem and was in the way of this. It did as best as it could with the limitations it had.

Founding Black Colleges in America, degrees were unallowed for black people. In 1837, Cheyenne University was the first black college established by Richard Humphrey. 

The 13th Amendment was passed on January 31, and banned slavery. It was ratified on December 6, 1865. The 14th Amendment was ratified in 1868 and granted citizenship to all people formally enslaved born in the U.S. It gave and guaranteed equal protection of laws. It also authorized the federal government to punish states that did not abide by the 14th Amendment. Southern states would now be punished for not allowing African Americans to vote. The 15th Amendment was passed by Congress on February 26, 1869, and it granted African Americans the right to vote.

The first African American in Congress was Hiram Rhodes Revels who was a civil rights advocate who took part in passing legislation like the Civil Rights Act. 

Reconstruction Video

The video emphasizes that the Reconstruction Era influenced contemporary anti-black hate crimes. After the Civil War, the Emancipation Proclamation aligned the executive branch with abolition, ending the war and passing the Reconstruction amendments, giving hope to America. African Americans were filled with hope and positivity, without any knowledge that difficulties would come. After being freed, they faced uncertainty as the North and South had differing visions for the form of Reconstruction.

The Confederate surrender at Appomattox marked only the beginning of a struggle for peace. During slavery, newspaper ads appeared that exposed the heartbreaking separation of enslaved families. These ads shed light on the issue, revealing the cruel reality of the time.

Andrew Johnson became President after Lincoln's assassination. He held significant authority during Congress's recess. Johnson blamed the planter class for the nation's problems but also had racist tendencies, refusing to shake hands with Frederick Douglass.

Johnson, who grew up poor in the South, deeply disliked wealthy white plantation owners. To ensure peace and safeguard the rights of former slaves, Johnson created The Freedmen's Bureau. The Freedmen's Bureau received 850,000 acres of land for the benefit of the freedmen, seen as a potential framework for Reconstruction. Andrew Johnson required people seeking pardons to personally contact him at the White House.

Many Southerners said that he had previously disapproved of asking him for forgiveness. Johnson directed the return of Freedman's Bureau land to Confederates. Freedmen had to contract with white landowners.

The Southern states were left devastated after the Civil War. The Confederates left their economy and land in ruins, and many still believe their actions were just. During a certain period, members of the Confederate government were allowed to participate in Congress. In addition, a clerk failed to mention any of these individuals in the official record of the proceedings. Exclusion from Congress sparked Democrat outbursts.

After losing their land, many freedmen moved to cities like Memphis. However, these cities were often racially tense. As a result, Memphis became a densely populated area with a fraught social climate. Black men were being shot at by white men and riots were quickly breaking out.

The riots resulted in the destruction of all-black schools and churches and the tragic loss of 48 African-American lives. The survivors sought shelter at the White House and shared their experiences with Congress. Their testimony convinced Congress to recognize the necessity of including rights for African Americans in the Constitution to ensure equal treatment.

If the process of rebuilding after the Civil War had been smoother, then the 14th Amendment wouldn't have been necessary. In the 1868 presidential election, Republican Ulysses S. Grant won the election. Grant was highly popular, particularly among freedmen, as he treated them with dignity and respect. Half a million black men voted in this election. This gave black enslaved people a great hope.

Plessy v. Ferguson

So much is going on leading up to the Plessy v. Ferguson case. In the 1860s-1890s, tension swept across the United States on the issue of slavery. Some viewed slavery as a good or a bad, there was much debate. The North, still believed that slavery was morally and absolutely wrong; the South still had many disputes over the issue of slavery and why it could be beneficial to society and especially for the government. 

After the American Civil War from 1861-1865, the turbulent or disorder after this war became known as the Reconstruction era, lasting for 12 years and ending in 1877. Well, what happened after the Reconstruction Era? Was slavery just over? No, absolutely not, several more issues arose. Some include the separate but Equal doctrine, the Lost Cause Movement, and Jim Crow Laws.
Let's focus on the last one, Jim Crow laws. Historically, these were laws that enforced racial segregation and discrimination in public facilities, transportation, schools, and other aspects of daily life. The history of these laws followed immediately after the ratification of the 13th Amendment. Jim Crow laws perpetuated racial segregation and oppression.

Let me explain the background, Jim Crow was not the name of a real person. Instead, Jim Crow was actually the name of a fictional character that was created through a minstrel song that portrayed African Americans.

On top of this, black slave codes were also in effect. They consisted of labor restrictions, curfews, public gatherings, property ownership, and gun control. They were restrictive laws aimed at limiting the freedom of African Americans and ensuring their cheap labor force availability.

Black codes were a form and eventually replaced by the Jim Crow laws. In 1865, South Carolina and Mississippi were the first states that enacted black codes. In some cases, they were even required to have written evidence of their employment.

These backgrounds and events along with many other untouched issues ultimately led to the case of Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896. During this historic event, the Supreme Court made a significant advancement by a 7-1 majority, introducing the "separate but equal" doctrine as a means of assessing the constitutionality of racial segregation laws.

Here you will see that this case revolved around issues of racial segregation and equality, specifically in the context of public transportation.

https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-codes

https://www.britannica.com/event/Jim-Crow-law

https://www.britannica.com/event/Plessy-v-Ferguson-1896

Gone With The Wind Reaction

Gone With the Wind is an American epic that was a remix of Margaret Mitchell's novel written in 1936. The movie was released in 1939. The setting was during the Civil War and Reconstruction era of the South, and tells the story of a girl named Scarlett O'Hara a strong-willed daughter of a plantation owner named Tara of Georgia. 

Scarlett falls in love with a man named Ashley Wilkes, however, he later marries his cousin, Melanie Hamilton. Scarlett then marries Melanie's brother Charles. Later, Charles goes to war and shortly dies from measles. Shortly after becoming a widow, she decides to start liking a gentleman named Rhett Butler. Scarlett is then asked to take care of her family while the siege is going through Atlanta. 

Part one of this movie shows the reality of slavery in the household. I would not consider this to be a common example of slavery. I feel like this movie's focus was more on the slave workers in the house rather than outdoor field slaves. In this case, Mammy is the nanny and maid. Watching Mammy's character throughout the movie was very interesting in how she played it. Overall, I really enjoyed this movie and I am looking forward to watching part two.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gone-with-the-Wind-film-by-Fleming